Every arcade game from SNK, like Metal Slug or King of Fighters. Also Stargunner [http://www.gog.com/game/stargunner] is awesome to play in short bursts, Doom, Duke Nukem 3D, Shadow Warrior, The Binding of Isaac Rebirth (especially if you own a PS Vita, get that version of it). Also Bejeweled is one of the best games played in short bursts.
EDIT: As of late, I've found myself playing Super Mario 3D World in short bursts of less than 30 minutes, obviously it's hard to put down and I've found myself playing this for 3 hours non-stop, but whenever I have little time to spare, this game is perfect for short bursts.